The use of plant functional types as a method of determining plant biodiversity and keystoneness in a northern New Zealand isocline : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Plant Science at Massey University, New Zealand

New Zealand vegetation, like the rest of the world, is undergoing increased perturbations due to global climate change. Whether anthropocentric in origin or part of a natural climatic cycle, increased CO₂, increased temperature plus changing regimes of precipitation have been recorded. Environmental change, especially at local levels, does affect community structure. New Zealand's ancient endemic trees and shrubs face the greatest threat of extinction, mainly due to habitat destruction by man for development and by introduced pests. The consequence could be that these trees and shrubs would not be able to migrate naturally in the time frame that climatic change will allow. The use of Plant Functional Types in climate change research is extensive and these groupings are being used more frequently in the study of diversity response to environmental change. The objectives of the Maunganui Bluff study were to develop a methodology to construct PFTs and to utilise these functional groupings in an analysis of the isocline. These analyses were; a diversity study based on richness and abundance, a site ordination and a group analysis. A total of forty-eight PFTs were constructed, then reduced to seventeen. The final seventeen functional groups were used in the following analyses. 1. A diversity analysis. While not appearing useful in comparing species evenness to PFT evenness over the isocline, the analysis did confirm that at that point in space and time when sampling was undertaken, PFTs did conform to the assembly rule for groups. This rule states that there should be equal representation of functional groups at each site from the total available pool 2. Ordination. The second analysis was to determine the effect of the local environment on the spatial position of the PFTs on the isocline. Detrended Correlation Analysis (DCA), an ordination technique, was used to map the groups and the sites against environmental gradients. The results signified that a small number of groups were strongly influenced by potassium (K) but the majority of groups occupied specific sites, on an altitude – phosphorus and nitrogen gradient, due to competition for resources. This summation is supported by altitude being linked to precipitation and leaching, since most of the other environmental data, measured and analysed, were correlated to altitude. 3. Group analysis using Indicator Species Analysis in the computer programme PCORD. The statistical analysis highlighted three PFTs with high keystone rankings p*>.800), one of which was missed by a subjective analysis of the site map of PFTs distribution. When these three groups were deconstructed back to species, the membership of each group was only one species. Of these three species, only Haloragis erecta appeared to be out of place within the gradient. Four hundred metres in altitude is well beyond the plants recognised limit of approximately 120 metres. Since sea level to one hundred and fifty metres is the shrubland zone and site K is also, by species sampled, designated a shrubland, there is evidence that some environmental factor may be associated with these sites. Obviously, this cannot be tested, as there were no Haloragis erecta in the sampled sites from sea level to one hundred and fifty metres. The analysis suffered from a lack of replication for the site under study, as well as comparative sites, to determine the validity of the methodologies. The results while encouraging only reflect a point in both space and time. The work would have needed a much larger range of environmental data, over a longer time frame to ensure that the results were not chance, and would be sustained under more detailed statistical rigor. Many of the premises that the work was based on are subjective. However, despite the lack of statistical rigor, the study confirms the work being carried out using PFTs in other countries. New Zealand's endemic plants do have assembly rules and PFTs constructed with New Zealand natives are valid assemblages that can be used in statistical analysis, and may well turn out to be important in monitoring environmental change

Study of optical techniques for the Ames unitary wind tunnels. Part 3: Angle of attack

A review of optical sensors that are capable of accurate angle of attack measurements in wind tunnels was conducted. These include sensors being used or being developed at NASA Ames and Langley Research Centers, Boeing Airplane Company, McDonald Aircraft Company, Arnold Engineering Development Center, National Aerospace Laboratory of the Netherlands, National Research Council of Canada, and the Royal Aircraft Establishment of England. Some commercial sensors that may be applicable to accurate angle measurements were also reviewed. It was found that the optical sensor systems were based on interferometers, polarized light detector, linear or area photodiode cameras, position sensing photodetectors, and laser scanners. Several of the optical sensors can meet the requirements of the Ames Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel. Two of these, the Boeing interferometer and the Complere lateral effect photodiode sensors are being developed for the Ames Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel

Study of optical techniques for the Ames unitary wind tunnel: Digital image processing, part 6

A survey of digital image processing techniques and processing systems for aerodynamic images has been conducted. These images covered many types of flows and were generated by many types of flow diagnostics. These include laser vapor screens, infrared cameras, laser holographic interferometry, Schlieren, and luminescent paints. Some general digital image processing systems, imaging networks, optical sensors, and image computing chips were briefly reviewed. Possible digital imaging network systems for the Ames Unitary Wind Tunnel were explored

Study of optical techniques for the Ames unitary wind tunnel. Part 5: Infrared imagery

A survey of infrared thermography for aerodynamics was made. Particular attention was paid to boundary layer transition detection. IR thermography flow visualization of 2-D and 3-D separation was surveyed. Heat transfer measurements and surface temperature measurements were also covered. Comparisons of several commercial IR cameras were made. The use of a recently purchased IR camera in the Ames Unitary Plan Wind Tunnels was studied. Optical access for these facilities and the methods to scan typical models was investigated

Study of optical techniques for the Ames unitary wind tunnels. Part 4: Model deformation

A survey of systems capable of model deformation measurements was conducted. The survey included stereo-cameras, scanners, and digitizers. Moire, holographic, and heterodyne interferometry techniques were also looked at. Stereo-cameras with passive or active targets are currently being deployed for model deformation measurements at NASA Ames and LaRC, Boeing, and ONERA. Scanners and digitizers are widely used in robotics, motion analysis, medicine, etc., and some of the scanner and digitizers can meet the model deformation requirements. Commercial stereo-cameras, scanners, and digitizers are being improved in accuracy, reliability, and ease of operation. A number of new systems are coming onto the market

Study of optical techniques for the Ames unitary wind tunnel, part 7

A summary of optical techniques for the Ames Unitary Plan wind tunnels are discussed. Six optical techniques were studied: Schlieren, light sheet and laser vapor screen, angle of attack, model deformation, infrared imagery, and digital image processing. The study includes surveys and reviews of wind tunnel optical techniques, some conceptual designs, and recommendations for use of optical methods in the Ames Unitary Plan wind tunnels. Particular emphasis was placed on searching for systems developed for wind tunnel use and on commercial systems which could be readily adapted for wind tunnels. This final report is to summarize the major results and recommendations

Study of optical techniques for the Ames unitary wind tunnels. Part 2: Light sheet and vapor screen

Light sheet and vapor screen methods have been studied with particular emphasis on those systems that have been used in large transonic and supersonic wind tunnels. The various fluids and solids used as tracers or light scatters and the methods for tracing generation have been studied. Light sources from high intensity lamps and various lasers have been surveyed. Light sheet generation and projection methods were considered. Detectors and location of detectors were briefly studied. A vapor screen system and a technique for location injection of tracers for the NASA Ames 9 by 7 foot Supersonic Wind Tunnel were proposed

Which ergodic averages have finite asymptotic variance?

We show that the class of $L^2$ functions for which ergodic averages of a reversible Markov chain have finite asymptotic variance is determined by the class of $L^2$ functions for which ergodic averages of its associated jump chain have finite asymptotic variance. This allows us to characterize completely which ergodic averages have finite asymptotic variance when the Markov chain is an independence sampler. In addition, we obtain a simple sufficient condition for all ergodic averages of $L^2$ functions of the primary variable in a pseudo-marginal Markov chain to have finite asymptotic variance